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Definitions and References

(Compiled by Thomas A. Angelo, School for New Learning, DePaul University, March 2000)

Assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and improving student learning. It involves making our expectations explicit and public; setting appropriate criteria and high standards for learning quality; systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to determine how well performance matches those expectations and standards; and using the resulting information to document, explain, and improve performance. When it is embedded effectively within larger institutional systems, assessment can help us focus our collective attention, examine our assumptions, and create a shared academic culture dedicated to assuring and improving the quality of higher education.

Angelo, T. A. Reassessing (and Defining) Assessment. The AAHE Bulletin, 48 (2), November 1995, pp. 7-9.

Classroom Assessment is a simple method faculty can use to collect feedback, early and often, on how well their students are learning what they are being taught. The purpose of classroom assessment is to provide faculty and students with information and insights needed to, improve teaching effectiveness and learning quality. College instructors use feedback gleaned through Classroom Assessment to inform adjustments in their teaching. Faculty also share feedback with students, using it to help them improve their learning strategies and study habits in order to become more independent, successful learners.... Classroom Assessment is one method of inquiry within the framework of Classroom Research, a broader approach to improving teaching and learning.

Angelo, T. A. Ten Easy Pieces: Assessing Higher Learning in Four Dimensions.

In T. A. Angelo (ed.) Classroom Research: Early Lessons from Success. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 46, Summer 199 1, pp. 17-31.

Higher learning is an active, interactive, self-aware process that results in meaningful, long-lasting changes -- in knowledge, understanding skills, behaviors, attitudes, beliefs, opinions, and/or values -- that can not be attributed primarily to maturation.

Angelo, T. A. A 'Teacher's Dozen': Fourteen General, Research-based Principles

for Improving Higher Learning in Our Classrooms. The AHE Bulletin, 45 (8), April 1993, pp. 3-7 & 13.

A Few Key References

On Improving College Teaching and Learning

·        Bloom, B.S. "The Hands and Feet of Genius: Automaticity." Educational Leadership, 43 (5), 1986.

·        Boice, R. First-Order Principles for College Teachers: Ten Basic Ways to Improve the Teaching Process. Bolton, MA: Anker, 1996.

·        Bruner, J.S. The Culture of Education. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1996.

·        Cross, K.P and Steadman, M.H. Classroom Research: Implementing the Scholarship of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1996.

·        Davis, B.G. Tools for Teaching. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

·        Gamson, Z.F. and Chickering, A.W. (Eds.). Applying the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 47. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

·        Guskey, T.R. Improving Student Learning in College Classrooms. Springfield, IL: Thomas, 1988

·        McKeachie, W. J. and others. Teaching Tips: Strategies, Research, and Theory for College and University Teachers, (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin, 1999.

·        McMillan, J.H. and Forsyth, D.R. "What Theories of Motivation Say about Why Leamers Learn." In R.J. Menges and M.D. Svinicki, (Eds.). College Teaching: From Theory to Practice. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 45. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

·        Norman, D.A. "What Goes On in the Mind of the Learner." In W.J. McKeachie (Ed.), Learning, Cognition, and College Teaching. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 2. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1980.

·        Pasearelia, E.T. and Terenzini, P.T. How College Affects Students: Findings and Insights from Twenty Years of Research. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

·        Sorcineiii, M.D. "Research Findings on the Seven Principles." In A.W. Chickering and Z.F. Gamson (Eds.), Applying the Seven Principles for Good Practice in Undergraduate Education. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 47. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

·        Svinicki, M.D. "Practical Implications of Cognitive Theories." In R.J. Menges and M.D. Svinicki, (Eds.). College Teaching: from Theory to Practice. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 45. San Francisco, CA. Jossey-Bass, 1991.

·        Walvoord, B.E. and Anderson, V. Effective Grading: A Tool for Learning and Assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.

·        Weinstein, C.E. and Meyer, D.K. "Cognitive Learning Strategies and College Teaching." In R.J. Menges and M.D. Svinicki, (Eds.). College Teaching: From Theory to Practice. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, no. 45. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1991.

13 Useful References on Assessment

·         AAHE Assessment Forum. Principles of Good Practice for Assessing Student Learning. Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education, 1992.

This 4 -page statement of nine guiding principles was developed by a dozen of the most experienced, eminent practitioners and theorists of assessment in American higher education -- including several of the authors listed below.

·         Assessment Update: Progress, Trends, and Practices in Higher Education. (A quarterly newsletter published by Jossey-Bass, Inc., Publishers, San Francisco.)

In addition to regular columns on central issues in assessment, each issue typically includes several short articles on a particular theme, such as classroom           assessment, TQM, assessment in Great Britain and Europe, standardized testing, student self-assessment, and the like.

·        Astin, A. W. What Matters in College? Four Critical Years Revisited. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

This updating and expansion of Astin's landmark 1977 research synthesis, Four Critical Years, delivers on the promise of its title, discussing the impact of college on students' personal, social, academic, and vocational development.

·         Banta, T. W. and Associates. Making a Difference: Outcomes of a Decade of Assessment in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1993.

The 24 chapters in this book survey the most common and effective ways individual faculty, departments, campuses, and states have used assessment to improve programs, services, and student learning; report lessons learned; and explore what difference these efforts are making.

·         Banta, T. W., Lund, J. P. Black, K. E., and Oblander, F. W. Assessment in Practice: Putting Principles to Work on College Campuses. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1995.

Organized around AAHE's "Principles of Good Practice for Assessing Student Learning," (see above) this volume' contains 86 actual cases illustrating current best practice in assessment. The cases are drawn from all institution types, focus on every level from classroom to campus, highlight a variety of methodological approaches, and represent a diversity of disciplines.

·         Ewell, P. T. "To Capture the Ineffable: New Forms of Assessment in Higher Education." In Ewell, P. T., Hutchings,P., and Marchese, T. Reprise 1991: Reprints of Two Papers Treating Assessment's History and Implementation. Washington, DC: American Association for Higher Education, 1991.

Ewell is arguably the most knowledgeable, thoughtful, and influential writer, speaker, and consultant on assessment in higher education. If you were to read only one of his many excellent pieces, this article would be a good choice.

·         Gardiner, L., Anderson, C., and Cambridge, B. Learning Through Assessment: A Resource Guide. Washington, DC: AAHE, 1997.
The single best, most comprehensive and current source on assessment in the US. An annotated and indexed directory of 300-plus books and articles, journals, newsletters, organizations, conferences, and electronic resources.

·         Light, R. L. The Harvard Assessment Seminars: Explorations with Students and Faculty about Teaching, Learning, and Student Life. (First Report, 1990;
Second Report, 1992). Cambridge, MA: Harvard Graduate School of Education and Kennedy School of Government.

These two engaging reports on Harvard's faculty-driven assessment efforts have influenced the thinking and efforts of thousands of readers. To request a copy, contact: Professor Richard J. Light, Kennedy School of Government, Harvard University, 79 JFK Street, Cambridge, MA 02138.

·         Light, R. L, Singer, J. D., and Willett, J. B. By Design: Planning Research on Higher Education. Cambridge, NIA: Harvard University, 1990.

For the past decade, Professor Light has directed the well-known Harvard Seminars on Assessment (see above); the other two authors are his faculty colleagues. In plain language using many examples from the Seminars and elsewhere -- this book explains how to design useful research for assessment and improvement purposes. Favorite quote: "You can't fix by analysis what you bungled by design."

·         Nichols, J. O., et al. A Practitioner's Handbook for Institutional Effectiveness and Student Outcomes Assessment Implementation. (3rd Ed.), New York: Agathon, 1995.

This is perhaps the most comprehensive "cookbook" -- the lead author's own term -- that exists on assessment, focusing on "hows" not "whys," and on practice more than theory. Nichols is also the lead author of a companion volume of case studies and another related assessment guide for departments.

·         Palomba, C.A. and Banta, T. W. Assessment Essentials: Planning, Implementing and Improving Assessment in Higher Education. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1999.

Assessment 101 in one volume.

·         Stark, J. S. and Thomas, A. Assessment & Program Evaluation. Needham Heights, MA: Association for the Study of Higher Ed./Simon & Schuster Custom Publishing, 1994.

For the serious student of assessment, this 800-plus page reader contains many central and often hard to find articles, chapters, and documents on these closely related topics. Most of the authors listed above, and scores more, are represented in this compendium.

·         Walvoord, B. E. and Anderson, V. J. Effective Grading: A Tool for Learning and Assessment. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1998.

This book clearly shows how faculty can make grading more valid, reliable and meaningful -- and how we can use that same process to develop shared criteria for outcomes assessment.
In doing so, it documents a promising way to engage faculty in meaningful assessment that can be connected seamlessly from the classroom to program and institutional levels.

Select References on

Classroom Assessment and Classroom Research

·        Almer, E.D., K. Jones & C. Moeckel. (1998). The Impact of One-minute Papers on Learning in Introductory Accounting Courses. Issues in Accounting, Education 13(3), 485-497.

·        Angelo,T.A.(1999).Doing Assessment as if Learning Matters Most. AAHE Bulletin, 51(9), 3-6.

·        Angelo, T.A. (Ed). (1998). Classroom Assessment and Research: An Update on Uses, Approaches, and Research Findings: New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 75. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

·        Angelo, T.A. (1996). Improving Classroom Assessment to Improve Learning: Guidelines from Research and Practice. Assessment Update, 8(l), 1-2, 12-13.

·        Angelo, T.A. (I 994). Classroom Assessment: Involving Faculty and Students Where It Matters Most. Assessment Update, 6(4), 1-2, 5, 1 0.

·        Angelo, T.A. (I 993). A Teacher's Dozen: Fourteen General, Research-based Principles for Improving Higher Learning in Our Classrooms. AAHE Bulletin, 45(8), 3-7, 1 0.

·        Angelo, T.A. (1991). Introduction and Overview: From Classroom Assessment to Classroom Research. In T.A. Angelo, (Ed.), Classroom Research: Early Lessons from Success: New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 46. (pp. 7-16). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publications (ERIC Digest: EJ431498).

·        Angelo, T.A. & K.P. Cross. (I 993). Classroom Assessment Techniques: A Handbook for College Teachers. Second edition. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers. (ERIC Digest: ED422345).

·        Apostolou, B. (1999). Outcomes assessment. Issues in Accounting Education, 14(l), 177-197.

·        Beard, V. (I 993). Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs): Tools for Improving Accounting Education. Journal of Accounting Education, 11, 293-300.

·        Boyer, E.L. (1990). Scholarship Reconsidered: Priorities of the Professorate. Princeton, N.J.: Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.

·        Cottell, P.G. (1991). Classroom Research in Accounting: Assessing for Learning. In T.A. Angelo (Ed.), Classroom Research: Early Lessons for Success. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 46, (pp. 43-54). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers (ERIC Digest: EJ431500).

·        Cottell, P.G. & Harwood, E. M. (I 998). Using Classroom Assessment Techniques to Improve Student Learning in Accounting Classes. Issues in Accounting Education, 13(3), 551-564.

·        Cottell, P.G. & Harwood, E. M. (I 998). Do Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATS) Improve Student Learning? In T.A. Angelo (Ed.), Classroom Assessment and Research: An Update on Uses, Approaches, and Research Findings: New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 75. (pp. 37-46). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

·        Cottell, P.G. & Harwood, E. M. (I 996). Background Knowledge Probes: An Example of the Synergy Between Cooperative Learning and Classroom Assessment Techniques. Cooperative Learning and College Teaching, 1(7), 6-8.

·        Cross, K.P., & Steadman, M.H.(1996).Classroom Research: Implementing the Scholarship of Teaching. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

·        Eisenbach, R., Golich, V., & Curry, R. (I 998). Classroom Assessment across the disciplines. In T.A. Angelo (Ed.), Classroom Assessment and Research: An Update on Uses Approaches, and Research Findings: New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 75. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

·        Harwood, E. M. (1999). Student Perceptions of the Effects of Classroom Assessment Techniques (CATs). Journal of Accounting Education, forthcoming.

·        Kelly, D.K. (I 993). Classroom Research and Interactive Learning: Assessing the Impact on Adult Learners and Faculty. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Claremont Graduate School (UMI Microform No. 9330348).

·        Mosteller, F. (I 989). The "Muddiest Point in the Lecture" as a Feedback Device. On Teaching and Learning: The Journal of the Harvard-Danforth Center, 10-21.

·        Tebo-Messina, M., & Van Aller, C. (1998). Classroom Research and Program Accountability: A Match Made in Heaven? In T.A. Angelo (Ed.), Classroom Assessment and Research: An Update on Uses, Approaches, and Research Findings: New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 75, (pp. 87-1 00). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers

·        Testa, A. (I 999). CYBER CATS: Classroom Assessment Techniques Administered and Reported via the Internet. Http://www.enmu.edu/-testa/classtecli/cat.htm.

·        Walker, C., & Angelo, T.A. (I 998). A Collective Effort Classroom Assessment Technique: Promoting High Performance in Student Teams. In T.A. Angelo (Ed.), Classroom Assessment and Research: An Update on Uses, Approaches, and Research Findings. New Directions for Teaching and Learning, No. 75, (pp. 101-112). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.

·        Wilson, R. C. (I 986). Improving Faculty Teaching: Effective Use of Student Evaluations and Consultants. Journal of Higher Education, 57, 196-21 1.